Concept Maps:

Concept maps can be used as both a cognitive and constructivist learning strategy in teaching and learning in adult education and human resource development. The maps can be used to understand course readings, analyze case studies, develop reflective thinking and enhance research skills. The creation of concept maps can also be supported by the use of the CmapTools software. Concept maps, a teaching and learning strategy developed by Novak and Gowin (1984) based on the work of David Ausubel, (1963, 2000), have been used in education for over 25 years. There is an in-depth theoretical and research base that supports the use of concept maps in facilitating student learning across age groups, professional disciplines, educational contexts and geographic contexts (Cañas, Coffey, Carnot, Feltovich, Hoffman, Feltovich, & Novak, 2003; Novak & Cañas, 2006a). In addition, for the past six years concept mapping research from around the world has been presented at the International Concept Mapping Conference (see: http://cmc.ihmc.us/). Yet, the use of concept maps in adult education and human resource development (AE/HRD) has been limited to date. The purpose of this essay is to describe concept maps as a teaching and learning strategy and to discuss their potential application to graduate programs in AE/HRD. Concept Maps: What are They? Concept maps can be considered both a cognitive and constructivist learning strategy. Based on Ausubel, Novak and Hanesian's (1986) view of cognitive learning, when learners create concept maps they are focusing on determining relationships between and among concepts within their cognitive structures. They are also adding newly learned concepts to their existing cognitive structures. When the focus of the map is on depicting the relationships between concepts, a cognitive view of learning is operationalized. However, the focus of the map can also include linking concepts to lived experiences or linking lived experiences to each other. When the learner takes this approach the map tends to be more of a constructivist learning strategy that can be used to foster reflective thinking and analysis. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development Volume 24, Numbers 2 – 4 32 Novak and Gowin (1984) describe a concept map as “a schematic device for representing a set of concept meanings embedded in a framework of propositions” (pg. 15). In this view, we think and learn with concepts by linking new concepts to what we already know. In addition, concepts are stored hierarchically and differentiated as learning grows. Learning with concept maps means that the learner is making an intentional effort to link, differentiate and relate concepts to each other. Ausubel (2000) and Ausubel, Novak and Hanesian (1986) believe that when we think and learn with concepts we use three processes; subsumption, progressive differentiation and integrative reconciliation. In the subsumption process lower order concepts are subsumed under higher order concepts. This subsumption process creates a hierarchy of knowledge structures. In the progressive differentiation process concepts are broken down into finer and finer components. In this way, progressive differentiation is similar to an analysis process. Finally, integrative reconciliation is a process where the learner attempts to reconcile and link together concepts from the left side of the map to those on the right side of the map. This is similar to a synthesis process. Figure 1: Concept map showing key features of concept maps (Novak & Cañas, 2006a, pg. 2). Reprinted with permission of Novak, J. & Cañas, A. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development Volume 24, Numbers 2 – 4 33 Figure 1, a concept map of a concept map, depicts these three processes. In looking at this map, one can see how the lower order concepts are subsumed under higher order concepts, how concepts are differentiated, and how concepts are horizontally reconciled. Integrative reconciliation is demonstrated by the horizontal links on the map. For example, at the bottom of Figure 1 note how the concept of creativity is linked to interrelationships. To create a concept map the learner engages in an active process that uses these three ideas. First, the leaner identifies the most general concepts and places them at the top of the map. Second, the learner identifies more specific concepts that relate to the general concepts in some way. Third, the learner ties together the general and specific concepts with linking words that make sense to them. Finally, the learner actively looks for cross-linkages that tie concepts from one side of the map to the other. Choosing linking words is one of the most difficult and yet, most important parts of creating a concept map. Whatever linking words the learner chooses will change the relationship between the concepts. To take a simple example, if as in Figure 2, a learner indicates that trees grow leaves one meaning is portrayed. Figure 2: Sample linking words in concept map However, if the learner changes the linking word and as in Figure 3 depicts that trees drop leaves a totally different meaning is portrayed. Figure 3: Changing linking words in a concept map Thus, the linking words serve to create propositional statements that ultimately frame the meaning that the learner is attempting to convey or to construct. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development Volume 24, Numbers 2 – 4 34 Concept maps can be created by hand with paper and pencil or they can be created using a number of different computerized programs designed for this purpose. With either method, what is most important is for the learner to be aware of the thinking processes that go into map creation and also for the learner to identify and connect concepts with linking words that depict the meaning that is important to the learner. Using Concept Maps in Facilitating Learning in Adult Education and Human Resource Development As described thus far, concept maps are designed to support learners’ efforts to learn in a meaningful way in an effort toward eventually understanding how they construct knowledge. With that in mind concept maps have multiple potential applications in AE/HRD.